Hidden in the Guatemalan jungles, Tikal was the largest and one of the most powerful city-states of the Mayan Empire, which stretched from the highlands of Mexico to the Caribbean coast of Honduras. Only about 3,000 of the 61,000 historical structures in the Petén lowlands have been excavated, and they show an ancient civilization well advanced in art, architecture, literature, astronomy, mathematics, engineering and agriculture.
North Acropolis
Everything was built with limestone quarried from the jungle, shaped with obsidian, and carried by human hands alone. Multilevel terraces helped with irrigation and brought rainwater to the city’s reservoirs.
The First Researchers
The Guatemalan government began exploring the ruins in 1848, followed by numerous international expeditions. In 1894 and 1905, the Peabody Museum sent architect Teobert Maler to document the structures. In 1910, they sent a team to map out the ruins. The research then turned to epigraphy, headed by the Carnegie Institute. From 1914 to 1928, four expeditions led by archeologist Sylvanus Morley came to record the inscriptions found on the walls and stelae on the site.
Palacio Maler
At the start of the expeditions, Tikal was overgrown, mostly lost in the jungle. This Palace of Two Stories, which dates to the 8th century, stood largely intact and Maler used it as his headquarters.
But it wasn’t until 1955, when the University Museum of Pennsylvania undertook The Tikal Project, that much of the ruins were extensively excavated, studied and documented. This single expedition brought some 90 scientists, researchers and archeologists to the site over the course of eleven years. And because of decades of ongoing surveys and thorough cataloging of every structure and artifact discovered, Tikal is one of the best-understood archeological sites in the world. The magnitude of information has been vital to modern studies of the once-vast Mayan empire, but many mysteries still remain.
The First Settlers
Pottery dating to 700 BCE shows the Eb people inhabited Tikal by then, although historians believe occupation and agriculture were present as far back as at least 1000 BCE. Obsidian was also found, meaning they traded with the highland Maya for the precious volcanic stone that served as their primary tool.
Maya Culture Vessel
This was found in a 4th-century royal burial under the East Plaza and showcases the mastery of Tikal's artisans.
The first settlements were small and scattered. Many occupants favored the swamp edges for farming, with a few hilltop villages that would endure as sacred spaces throughout Tikal’s history. Evidence of sacrifice was found on ceremonial sites, including a human skull indicating an intentional beheading. Where the Eb came from or whether they were the first settlers is unclear.
The Tzec followed with more elaborate pottery dating between 600 and 300 BCE. Stratigraphy placed their remains layered above the Eb and showed a more complex pattern of living with priestly platforms and religious ceremonies.
The First Builders
Ceramics continued to evolve, marked by Chuen, Cauac and Cimi pottery. Tikal became a fast-growing city between 300 BCE and 150 CE. There was prolific building in the Great Plaza, North Acropolis and Mundo Perdido – the first archeological records of preserved residential sites date to this period. Platforms at the North Acropolis served as formally arranged temples and burial grounds for kings. The use of masonry blocks and apron molding began at this time and would become traditional components of lowland Maya architecture. Monuments were heightened in phases as succeeding rulers commissioned bigger, taller structures attesting to their power.
The Great Plaza
Temple I, Temple II and the North Acropolis
Mundo Perdido was the other central part of the city. The Lost World platform looks out to the East Plaza where three other platforms align with the sunrise during the summer solstice, the spring and autumn equinoxes, and the winter solstice.
The First Rulers
The hieroglyphs on Stela 29 in Tikal are the earliest Mayan inscriptions found and deciphered on record. They’re dated to 292 CE and tell the story of the city’s founding ruler, Yax Chakt’l Xok (First Scaffold Shark), whose reign began around 90 CE. Although the stela was made centuries after the first settlement, the Mayans were incredible record keepers, and later historical texts helped fill the gaps.
Talud-Tablero Temple
Dated to the 3rd century and found in the Lost World Complex, this architectural style is borrowed from Teotihuacan, a pre-Aztec settlement in central Mexico, where a stronger green obsidian was traded.
Their written history fall under two categories. Like Stela 29, the first contains narrative texts on the lives of individual rulers, their families and significant events under their rule. For the next six centuries, a dynasty of 33 rulers was documented. The last was Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil II (Heavenly Standard Bearer), as told on Stela 11, dated to 869. The texts also explain the importance of royal titles in Tikal, which followed a strict hierarchy. Chacte meant emperor, the supreme ruler of Tikal, and there could only be one at a time. He’s followed by an ahau, or lord, the leader of a large part of the city, and they rule alongside the chacte. Batab and sahal denote diplomats and nobles.
One of the most detailed descriptions is found on Stela 31, which tells the story of the city’s 14th ruler, Chak Tok Ichʼaak (Great Jaguar Claw), and the dynastic heritage of ten previous rulers. It also depicts his great exploits, including the conquest of Uaxactun, a rival city 18km to the north. His bloodline would rule up to the fall of Tikal in the 9th century.
Stela 16, Altar 5
Stela 16 dates to 711 CE and depicts Jasaw Chan K'awili, the 26th ruler of Tikal. Altar 5 depicts two priestly figures behind an altar piled with human bones.
The second type of inscription they recorded was calendrical, involving the number of days, months and other time cycles they followed. The Mayans were extraordinary observers of celestial events, and their observations allowed them to plan the best dates for farming and harvesting. They understood the correlation between astronomy and mathematics and were able to predict solar eclipses with the naked eye alone.
Palaces, Temples, and Other Structures
Jaguar Clan House
Beginning in the 4th century, under Chak Tok Ichʼaak, the royal residences became grander and more complex. At the eastern end of the Central Acropolis, his house originally consisted of seven rooms with a central space that served as a household shrine. A second story and interior staircase, unique to Tikal, were later added.
Great Jaguar Claw’s Palace
The Central Acropolis remained the place of the high royal court in Tikal. The royal residence continued to expand, and by the 8th century, there were newer raised patios and larger rooms to accommodate the growing family. It held such reverence that even during warfare and while Tikal was under an occupying power, the house was kept from damage and destruction.
Temples I and II
Between 562 and 686, the written records fell silent. This coincides with Tikal suffering defeat against Caracol, a nearby Mayan city-state. A period of instability with other warring cities followed. It wasn’t until 682, with Tikal’s 26th ruler, Jasaw Chan K’awiil, that the city was restored to power after defeating Calakmul.
Temple I, II, and III
View from Temple IV as seen in the first Star Wars film. George Lucas used Tikal as the setting for the fictional moon Yavin 4. The term "star war" comes from a Mayan glyph depicting a shower of stars over the earth. It was used to describe a full-scale war planned in accordance with a specific astronomical event.
Under his reign, significant construction and documentation resumed. The twin pyramids of Temple I and Temple II were among them. Commissioned to serve as burial grounds for himself and his wife, they would become Tikal’s most iconic monuments. When Temple I was excavated, the king lay covered in jade with 37 finely carved human bones at his feet. The remains of the queen, however, were never found.
Palace of the Grooves
His son, Yik’in Chan K’awiil (Darkness of the Night Sky), succeeded the throne, and his reign was also marked by prolific building. The Palace of the Grooves is named for the vertical columns on its façade. It’s located at the eastern edge of the ceremonial center and is connected by a long causeway, one of many public works he commissioned. The palace complex is the largest uncovered at Tikal, with 29 vaulted rooms and an interior plaza.
Palace of the Grooves
Temple IV
Built for his burial, Temple IV is one of the tallest buildings in the Mayan world, second only to the Great Pyramid of Toniná in Chiapas. It measures 70 meters high and has seven lower and three roof levels. From Temple IV, all of central Tikal would have been visible during ancient times without the jungle overgrowth covering it. This building coincided with the height of Tikal’s power when its influence extended over neighboring city-states and to as many as two million people.
Temple VI
Better known as the Temple of the Inscriptions, the hieroglyphic texts found all over Temple VI contain the entire history of Tikal – spanning 1,905 years from 1139 BCE to 734. The earliest stories are assumed to be a mythological rendition of the founding of the city. Subsequent historical events were passed down orally until the first stela inscriptions appeared in 292. Specific dates and events are recounted, detailing the city’s progression from Tzec times. Most of the account is about the life of Yik’in Chan K’awiil and his parents. The last date in the series is February 15, 766, during the reign of his son and successor.
Temple VI
The three entryways led archeologists to believe this was used more as a resident (or perhaps a library) rather than a temple.
Complexes Q and R
The twin pyramid is a common composition in Maya architecture, and Complex Q is the largest in Tikal. It was built in 771 by Yik’in Chan K’awiil’s successor, Yax Ain (Dark Sun), to mark and celebrate the ending of a 20-year cycle in the Mayan calendar. In 790, Yik’in Chan K’awiil’s second son built Complex R to mark another cycle.
Complex Q East Pyramid
Many structures, including the twin pyramids, were built on an east to west axis to represent the rising (birth) and setting (death) sun.
Seven Temples
One of the latest areas to be unearthed, the Plaza of the Seven Temples dates from the 7th to the 9th century. The buildings are small and identical, located to the east of Mundo Perdido, with an unusual triple ballcourt on the north end. Some of the oldest ceramics deposits in Tikal, dating back to 650 BCE, were found here, along with remains of earlier versions of structures.
Ballcourts
Five ballcourts were unearthed in Tikal. The Mayan sport was ritualistic and played for a prestigious audience, including the higher ranks of society and royal guests. Game days were associated with religious dates tied to Mayan gods and the creation myth. The goal was to pass a 7kg rubber ball through a stone ring without letting the ball touch the ground. Players competed in teams of two to six and could use their hips, elbows and knees. Negotiations and alliances were made on the ballcourt, where losing players and captured enemies, including kings, were often sacrificed.
Central Acropolis and Ballcourt
Corrential Reservoir
The nearby marshes of Petén drew Tikal’s first inhabitants. They dug canals and reservoirs to supply the city with water year-round and invented a complex filtration system, the first in the Americas. They used quartz and zeolite, placing them on woven reed matting upstream to flow into the Corrential Reservoir. Zeolite is a volcanic mineral that removes harmful pollutants so water can be drinkable. It’s found in Bajo de Azúcar, 12km north of Tikal, where the Mayans must have observed the water to be clean, discovered the mineral, and brought it back to the city.
The Fall of Tikal
Building in Tikal suddenly slowed. In 810, Temple III would be the last, built by its 31st ruler, Nu Bak Chak (Shield Skull). The inscriptions fell silent once again until 869 when Stela 11 was erected by its 33rd ruler, Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil II. It would also be the last. Tikal, which had a population of 60,000, was mysteriously abandoned. Like many Mayan cities, it fell into ruins.
Lost World Complex
Archeologists believe Tikal’s resources had been depleted and could no longer feed its people. Drought could also have been a factor. Rulers were tied to the gods, and when crops failed, the people blamed their kings and often rebelled.
